RandomWOW/doc/specs.md

RandomX

RandomX is a proof of work (PoW) algorithm which was designed to close the gap between general-purpose CPUs and specialized hardware. The core of the algorithm is a simulation of a virtual CPU.

1. Definitions

1.1 Configurable parameters

RandomX has several configurable parameters that are listed in Table 1.1.1 with their default values.

Table 1.1.1 - Configurable parameters

parameter	default value
RANDOMX_ARGON_MEMORY	(256 * 1024) (256 MiB)
RANDOMX_ARGON_GROWTH	0
RANDOMX_ARGON_ITERATIONS	3
RANDOMX_ARGON_LANES	1
RANDOMX_ARGON_SALT	52 61 6e 64 6f 6d 58 03 ("RandomX\x03")
RANDOMX_CACHE_ACCESSES	16
RANDOMX_DATASET_SIZE	(4ULL * 1024 * 1024 * 1024) (4 GiB)
RANDOMX_DS_GROWTH	(2 * 1024 * 1024)
RANDOMX_EPOCH_BLOCKS	1024
RANDOMX_EPOCH_LAG	64
RANDOMX_PROGRAM_SIZE	256
RANDOMX_PROGRAM_ITERATIONS	2048
RANDOMX_PROGRAM_COUNT	8
RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L3	(2 * 1024 * 1024) (2 MiB)
RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L2	(256 * 1024) (256 KiB)
RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L1	(16 * 1024) (16 KiB)

Instruction frequencies listed in Tables 5.2.1, 5.3.1 and 5.4.1 are also configurable.

1.2 Definitions

Hash256 and Hash512 refer to the Blake2b hashing function with a 256-bit and 512-bit output size, respectively.

Argon2d is a tradeoff-resistant variant of Argon2, a memory-hard password derivation function.

Generator refers to an AES-based random number generator described in chapter 3.2. It's initialized with a 512-bit seed value and is capable of producing up to 10 random bytes per clock cycle.

Finalizer refers to an AES-based fingerprinting function described in chapter 3.3. It's capable of processing up to 10 bytes per clock cycle and produces a 512-bit output.

SquareHash refers to a custom diffusion function with a 64-bit input and 64-bit output (see chapter 3.4).

Virtual Machine or VM refers to the RandomX virtual machine as described in chapter 4.

Programming the VM refers to the act of loading a program and configuration into the VM. This is described in chapter 4.5.

Executing the VM refers to the act of running the program loop as described in chapter 4.6.

Scratchpad refers to the workspace memory of the VM. Its size is equal to RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L3.

Register File refers to a 256-byte sequence formed by concatenating VM registers in little-endian format in the following order: r0-r7, f0-f3, e0-e3 and a0-a3.

Program Buffer refers to the buffer from which the VM reads instructions. The size of the buffer is 8 * RANDOMX_PROGRAM_SIZE bytes.

Epoch is a period of RANDOMX_EPOCH_BLOCKS.

Cache refers to a read-only buffer initialized by Argon2d. The initial size of the Cache is RANDOMX_ARGON_MEMORY KiB and grows by RANDOMX_ARGON_GROWTH KiB per epoch.

Dataset refers to a large read-only buffer described in chapter 6. It is constructed from the Cache using the SquareHash function. The initial size of the Dataset is RANDOMX_DATASET_SIZE bytes and grows by RANDOMX_DS_GROWTH bytes per epoch.

2. Algorithm description

The RandomX proof of work (PoW) algorithm accepts an input H of arbitrary length (typically a block header with a selected nonce value) and outputs a 256-bit proof P to be used for a Hashcash-style evaluation (typically P is required to be lower than a threshold value for the proof to be successful).

The algorithm consists of the following steps:

1. 64-byte seed S0 is calculated as S0 = Hash512(H).
2. Generator is initialized with state S0.
3. The Scratchpad is filled with RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L3 random bytes obtained from the Generator.
4. The value of the VM register fprc is set to 0 (default rounding mode - see chapter 4.3).
5. The VM is programmed using 128 + 8 * RANDOMX_PROGRAM_SIZE random bytes from the Generator.
6. The VM is executed.
7. New 64-byte seed is calculated as S1 = Hash512(RegisterFile).
8. Generator is initialized with seed S1.
9. Steps 5-8 are performed a total of RANDOMX_PROGRAM_COUNT times. The last iteration skips steps 7 and 8.
10. Scratchpad fingerprint is calculated as A = Finalizer(Scratchpad).
11. The values of the VM registers a0-a3 (4×16 bytes) are set to the value of A.
12. Proof is calculated as P = Hash256(RegisterFile).

3 Custom functions

3.1 Definitions

Two of the custom functions are based on the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).

AES encryption round refers to the application of the ShiftRows, SubBytes and MixColumns transformations followed by a XOR with the round key.

AES decryption round refers to the application of inverse ShiftRows, inverse SubBytes and inverse MixColumns transformations followed by a XOR with the round key.

3.2 Generator

The Generator produces a sequence of pseudo-random bytes.

The Generator state consists of 64 bytes arranged into four columns of 16 bytes each. During each output iteration, every column is decrypted (columns 0, 2) or encrypted (columns 1, 3) with one AES round using the following round keys (one key per column):

key0 = 2d ec ee 84 d5 f6 4f 45 32 91 32 ca e3 a2 20 df
key1 = d0 63 7b 01 78 c5 0f f1 7f 38 d0 fe 71 59 eb 1d
key2 = 52 7a 7d 32 a1 70 2c 2f b4 ce 17 a5 b3 26 c9 df
key3 = d3 77 8d 5c 5e da 17 3d a9 e0 ec a0 1c f3 1c 34

These keys were generated by calculating Blake2b hash with 256-bit output of these ASCII strings (first 128 bits of the hash are used):

"RandomX Generator key0"
"RandomX Generator key1"
"RandomX Generator key2"
"RandomX Generator key3"

Single iteration produces 64 bytes of output which also become the new generator state.

state0 (16 B)    state1 (16 B)    state2 (16 B)    state3 (16 B)
     |                |                |                |
 AES decrypt      AES encrypt      AES decrypt      AES encrypt
   (key0)           (key1)           (key2)           (key3)
     |                |                |                |
     v                v                v                v
  state0'          state1'          state2'          state3'

3.3 Finalizer

The Finalizer calculates a 512-bit fingerprint of its input.

The Finalizer has a 64-byte internal state, which is arranged into four columns of 16 bytes each. The initial state is:

state0 = 00 8e 77 c4 ab f5 7a 88 67 d1 46 11 fd 26 31 8d
state1 = 4b ef 34 b8 89 af 95 1b 2b 63 da 58 a1 9f fe 19
state2 = 3a dd 42 77 00 3a 28 ab 44 d7 5a c3 74 cd b2 1b
state3 = 9a 44 8b e1 cc 97 5d dc 57 3c 59 49 8a a5 30 bb

The initial state vectors were generated by calculating Blake2b hash with 256-bit output of these ASCII strings (first 128 bits of the hash are used):

"RandomX Finalizer state0"
"RandomX Finalizer state1"
"RandomX Finalizer state2"
"RandomX Finalizer state3"

The input is processed in 64-byte blocks. Each input block is considered to be a set of four AES round keys key0, key1, key2, key3. Each state column is encrypted (columns 0, 2) or decrypted (columns 1, 3) with one AES round using the corresponding round key:

state0 (16 B)    state1 (16 B)    state2 (16 B)    state3 (16 B)
     |                |                |                |
 AES encrypt      AES decrypt      AES encrypt      AES decrypt
   (key0)           (key1)           (key2)           (key3)
     |                |                |                |
     v                v                v                v
  state0'          state1'          state2'          state3'

When all input bytes have been processed, the state is processed with two additional AES rounds with the following extra keys (one key per round, same pair of keys for all columns):

xkey0 = 47 f2 cb 11 9c 92 5a 2a 3d 59 c5 e4 83 12 95 83
xkey1 = 95 6c 81 ce 0b ef 7b 47 23 25 bc ab b2 5b 21 ff

The extra keys were generated by calculating Blake2b hash with 256-bit output of these ASCII strings (first 128 bits of the hash are used):

"RandomX Finalizer xkey0"
"RandomX Finalizer xkey1"

state0 (16 B)    state1 (16 B)    state2 (16 B)    state3 (16 B)
     |                |                |                |
 AES encrypt      AES decrypt      AES encrypt      AES decrypt
   (xkey0)          (xkey0)          (xkey0)          (xkey0)
     |                |                |                |
     v                v                v                v
 AES encrypt      AES decrypt      AES encrypt      AES decrypt
   (xkey1)          (xkey1)          (xkey1)          (xkey1)
     |                |                |                |
     v                v                v                v
finalState0      finalState1      finalState2      finalState3 

The final state is the output of the function.

3.4 SquareHash

SquareHash is a custom diffusion function with a 64-bit input and a 64-bit output. It is calculated by adding 9507361525245169745 to the input value and then repeatedly squaring the state, splitting the 128-bit result in to two 64-bit halves and subtracting the high half from the low half. This is repeated 42 times.

1. state = input + 9507361525245169745
2. (hi, lo) = state * state
3. state = lo - hi
4. Perform steps 2-3 total of 42 times.
5. Return state.

The magic constant 9507361525245169745 was generated by calculating SquareHash0(42), where SquareHash0 is a version of SquareHash without the magic constant addition in step 1.

4. Virtual Machine

The RandomX virtual machine can be summarized by the following schematic:

The VM is a complex instruction set computer (CISC). All data are loaded and stored in little-endian byte order. Signed integer numbers are represented using two's complement. Floating point numbers are represented using the IEEE 754 double precision format.

4.1 Dataset

Dataset is described in detail in chapter 6. It's a large read-only buffer. Its size starts at RANDOMX_DATASET_SIZE bytes and grows by RANDOMX_DS_GROWTH bytes per epoch. Each program uses only a random subset of the Dataset of size RANDOMX_DATASET_SIZE. All Dataset accesses read an aligned 64-byte block.

4.2 Scratchpad

Scratchpad represents the workspace memory of the VM. Its size is RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L3 bytes and it's divided into 3 "levels":

• The whole scratchpad is the third level "L3".
• The first RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L2 bytes of the scratchpad is the second level "L2".
• The first RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L1 bytes of the scratchpad is the first level "L1".

The scratchpad levels are inclusive, i.e. L3 contains both L2 and L1 and L2 contains L1.

To access a particular scratchpad level, bitwise AND with a mask according to table 4.2.1 is applied to the memory address.

Table 4.2.1: Scratchpad access masks

Level	8-byte aligned mask	64-byte aligned mask
L1	(RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L1 - 1) & ~7	-
L2	(RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L2 - 1) & ~7	-
L3	(RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L3 - 1) & ~7	(RANDOMX_SCRATCHPAD_L3 - 1) & ~63

4.3 Registers

The VM has 8 integer registers r0-r7 (group R) and a total of 12 floating point registers split into 3 groups: f0-f3 (group F), e0-e3 (group E) and a0-a3 (group A). Integer registers are 64 bits wide, while floating point registers are 128 bits wide and contain a pair of floating point numbers. The lower and upper half of floating point registers are not separately addressable.

Additionally, there are 3 internal registers ma, mx and fprc.

Integer registers r0-r7 can be the source or the destination operands of integer instructions or may be used as address registers for loading the source operand from the memory (Scratchpad).

Floating point registers a0-a3 are read-only and may not be written to except at the moment a program is loaded into the VM. They can be the source operand of any floating point instruction. The value of these registers is restricted to the interval [1, 4294967296).

Floating point registers f0-f3 are the "additive" registers, which can be the destination of floating point addition and subtraction instructions. The absolute value of these registers will not exceed 1.0e+12.

Floating point registers e0-e3 are the "multiplicative" registers, which can be the destination of floating point multiplication, division and square root instructions. Their value is always positive.

ma and mx are the memory registers. Both are 32 bits wide. ma contains the memory address of the next Dataset read and mx contains the address of the next Dataset prefetch.

The 2-bit fprc register determines the rounding mode of all floating point operations according to Table 4.3.1. The four rounding modes are defined by the IEEE 754 standard.

Table 4.3.1: Rounding modes

fprc	rounding mode
0	roundTiesToEven
1	roundTowardNegative
2	roundTowardPositive
3	roundTowardZero

4.4 Program buffer

The Program buffer stores the program to be executed by the VM. The program consists of RANDOMX_PROGRAM_SIZE instructions. Each instruction is encoded by an 8-byte word. The instruction set is described in chapter 5.

4.5 VM programming

The VM requires 128 + 8 * RANDOMX_PROGRAM_SIZE bytes to be programmed. This is split into two parts:

• 128 bytes of configuration data
• 8 * RANDOMX_PROGRAM_SIZE bytes of program data

4.5.1 Configuration data

The configuration data is used according to Table 4.5.1.

Table 4.5.1 - Configuration data

bytes	description
0-7	initialize low half of register a0
8-15	initialize high half of register a0
16-23	initialize low half of register a1
24-31	initialize high half of register a1
32-39	initialize low half of register a2
40-47	initialize high half of register a2
48-55	initialize low half of register a3
56-63	initialize high half of register a3
64-67	initialize register ma
68-79	(reserved)
80-83	initialize register mx
84-95	(reserved)
96	select address registers
97-111	(reserved)
112-119	select Dataset offset
120-127	(reserved)

The values of the floating point registers a0-a3 are initialized to have the following value:

+1.mantissa x 2exponent

Mantissa has full 52 bits of precision and exponent ranges from 0 to 31. Those values are obtained from the 8-byte initialization value (in little endian format) according to Table 4.5.2.

Table 4.5.2 - Group A register initialization

bits	description
0-51	mantissa
52-58	(reserved)
59-63	exponent

Registers ma and mx are initialized by directly copying the corresponding bytes in little endian format.

Bits 0-3 of byte 96 are used to select 4 address registers for program execution. Each bit chooses one register from a pair of integer registers according to Table 4.5.3.

Table 4.5.3 - Address registers

address register (bit)	value = 0	value = 1
readReg0 (0)	r0	r1
readReg1 (1)	r2	r3
readReg2 (2)	r4	r5
readReg3 (3)	r6	r7

Bytes 112-119 are interpreted as an 8-byte little endian integer dn. dd is an integer defined as epoch * RANDOMX_DS_GROWTH / 64 + 1, where epoch is the sequential number of the current epoch, starting with 0. The starting Dataset offset for the current program is then equal to 64 * (dn % dd), where % denotes the modulo operation. This operation chooses a random window of size RANDOMX_DATASET_SIZE that will be accessed by the current program.

4.5.2 Program data

The program data is copied directly into the Program Buffer without any changes.

4.6 VM execution

During VM execution, 3 additional temporary registers are used: ic, spAddr0 and spAddr1. Program execution consists of initialization and loop execution.

4.6.1 Initialization

1. ic register is set to RANDOMX_PROGRAM_ITERATIONS.
2. spAddr0 is set to the value of mx.
3. spAddr1 is set to the value of ma.
4. The values of all integer registers r0-r7 are set to zero.

4.6.2 Loop execution

The loop described below is repeated until the value of the ic register reaches zero.

1. XOR of registers readReg0 and readReg1 (see Table 4.5.3) is calculated and spAddr0 is XORed with the low 32 bits of the result and spAddr1 with the high 32 bits.
2. spAddr0 is used to perform a 64-byte aligned read from Scratchpad level 3 (using mask from Table 4.2.1). The 64 bytes are XORed with all integer registers in order r0-r7.
3. spAddr1 is used to perform a 64-byte aligned read from Scratchpad level 3 (using mask from Table 4.2.1). Each floating point register f0-f3 and e0-e3 is initialized using an 8-byte value. For Group F registers, the 8-byte value is interpreted as two 32-bit signed integers and implicitly converted to floating point format. Group E registers are initialized the same way, then their sign bit is cleared and their exponent value is set to 0x30F (corresponds to 2^-240).
4. The 256 instructions stored in the Program Buffer are executed.
5. The mx register is XORed with the low 32 bits of registers readReg2 and readReg3 (see Table 4.5.3).
6. A 64-byte memory block at address mx is prefetched from the Dataset (this has no effect on the VM state).
7. A 64-byte memory block at address ma is loaded from the Dataset. The 64 bytes are XORed with all integer registers in order r0-r7.
8. The values of registers mx and ma are swapped.
9. The values of all integer registers r0-r7 are written to the Scratchpad (L3) at address spAddr1 (64-byte aligned).
10. Register f0 is XORed with register e0 and the result is stored in register f0. Register f1 is XORed with register e1 and the result is stored in register f1. Register f2 is XORed with register e2 and the result is stored in register f2. Register f3 is XORed with register e3 and the result is stored in register f3.
11. The values of registers f0-f3 are written to the Scratchpad (L3) at address spAddr0 (64-byte aligned).
12. spAddr0 and spAddr1 are both set to zero.
13. ic is decreased by 1.

5. Instruction set

The VM executes programs in a special instruction set, which was designed in such way that any random 8-byte word is a valid instruction and any sequence of valid instructions is a valid program. Because there are no "syntax" rules, generating a random program is as easy as filling the program buffer with random data.

5.1 Instruction encoding

Each instruction word is 64 bits long and has the following format:

5.1.1 opcode

There are 256 opcodes, which are distributed between 32 distinct instructions. Each instruction can be encoded using multiple opcodes (the number of opcodes specifies the frequency of the instruction in a random program).

Table 5.1.1: Instruction groups

group	# instructions	# opcodes
integer	19	137	53.5%
floating point	9	94	36.7%
other	4	25	9.8%
	32	256	100%

All instructions are described below in chapters 5.2 - 5.4.

5.1.2 dst

Destination register. Only bits 0-1 (register groups A, F, E) or 0-2 (groups R, F+E) are used to encode a register according to Table 5.1.2.

Table 5.1.2: Addressable register groups

index	R	A	F	E	F+E
0	r0	a0	f0	e0	f0
1	r1	a1	f1	e1	f1
2	r2	a2	f2	e2	f2
3	r3	a3	f3	e3	f3
4	r4				e0
5	r5				e1
6	r6				e2
7	r7				e3

5.1.3 src

The src flag encodes a source operand register according to Table 5.1.2 (only bits 0-1 or 0-2 are used).

Some integer instructions use the immediate value imm32 as the source operand in cases when dst and src encode the same register (see Table 5.2.1).

For register-memory instructions, the source operand determines the address_base value for calculating the memory address.

5.1.4 mod

The mod flag is encoded as:

Table 5.1.3: mod flag encoding

mod	description
0-1	mod.mem flag
2-4	mod.cond flag
5-7	Reserved

The mod.mem flag determines the Scratchpad level when reading from or writing to memory except for cases when address_base is an immediate value.

Table 5.1.4: memory access Scratchpad level

condition	Scratchpad level
address_base is imm32	L3
mod.mem == 0	L2
mod.mem != 0	L1

The address for reading/writing is calculated by applying bitwise AND operation to address_base and the 8-byte aligned address mask listed in Table 4.2.1.

The mod.cond flag is used only by the COND instruction to select a condition to be tested (see 5.4.1).

5.1.5 imm32

A 32-bit immediate value that can be used as the source operand. The immediate value is sign-extended to 64 bits unless specified otherwise.

5.2 Integer instructions

For integer instructions, the destination is always an integer register (register group R). Source operand (if applicable) can be either an integer register or memory value. If dst and src refer to the same register, most instructions use imm32 as the source operand instead of the register. This is indicated in the 'src == dst' column in Table 5.2.1.

Memory operands are loaded as 8-byte values from the address indicated by src. This indirect addressing is marked with square brackets: [src].

Table 5.2.1 Integer instructions

frequency	instruction	dst	src	src == dst ?	operation
12/256	IADD_R	R	R	src = imm32	dst = dst + src
7/256	IADD_M	R	mem	src = imm32	dst = dst + [src]
16/256	IADD_RC	R	R	src = dst	dst = dst + src + imm32
12/256	ISUB_R	R	R	src = imm32	dst = dst - src
7/256	ISUB_M	R	mem	src = imm32	dst = dst - [src]
16/256	IMUL_R	R	R	src = imm32	dst = dst * src
4/256	IMUL_M	R	mem	src = imm32	dst = dst * [src]
9/256	IMUL_9C	R	-	-	dst = 9 * dst + imm32
4/256	IMULH_R	R	R	src = dst	dst = (dst * src) >> 64
1/256	IMULH_M	R	mem	src = imm32	dst = (dst * [src]) >> 64
4/256	ISMULH_R	R	R	src = dst	dst = (dst * src) >> 64 (signed)
1/256	ISMULH_M	R	mem	src = imm32	dst = (dst * [src]) >> 64 (signed)
8/256	IMUL_RCP	R	-	-	dst = 2x / imm32 * dst
2/256	INEG_R	R	-	-	dst = -dst
16/256	IXOR_R	R	R	src = imm32	dst = dst ^ src
4/256	IXOR_M	R	mem	src = imm32	dst = dst ^ [src]
10/256	IROR_R	R	R	src = imm32	dst = dst >>> src
4/256	ISWAP_R	R	R	src = dst	temp = src; src = dst; dst = temp

5.2.1 IADD

64-bit integer addition operation (performed modulo 2⁶⁴). IADD_R uses register source operand, IADD_M uses a memory source operand and IADD_RC performs a 3-way addition using imm32.

5.2.2 ISUB

64-bit integer subtraction (performed modulo 2⁶⁴). ISUB_R uses register source operand, ISUB_M uses a memory source operand.

5.2.3 IMUL

64-bit integer multiplication (performed modulo 2⁶⁴). IMUL_R uses register source operand, IMUL_M uses a memory source operand and IMUL_9C multiplies by 9 and adds imm32.

5.2.4 IMULH, ISMULH

These instructions output the high 64 bits of the whole 128-bit multiplication result. The result differs for signed and unsigned multiplication (IMULH is unsigned, ISMULH is signed). The variants with a register source operand do not use imm32 (they perform a squaring operation if dst equals src).

5.2.5 IMUL_RCP

This instruction multiplies the destination register by a reciprocal of imm32 (the immediate value is zero-extended). The reciprocal is calculated as rcp = 2x / imm32 by choosing the largest integer x such that rcp < 264. If imm32 equals 0, IMUL_RCP is a no-op.

5.2.6 INEG_R

Performs two's complement negation of the destination register.

5.2.7 IXOR

64-bit exclusive OR operation. IXOR_R uses register source operand, IXOR_M uses a memory source operand.

5.2.8 IROR_R

Performs a cyclic right-shift (rotation) of the destination register. Source operand (shift count) is implicitly masked to 6 bits.

5.2.9 ISWAP_R

This instruction swaps the values of two registers. If source and destination refer to the same register, the result is a no-op.

5.3 Floating point instructions

For floating point instructions, the destination can be a group F or group E register. Source operand is either a group A register or a memory value.

Memory operands are loaded as 8-byte values from the address indicated by src. The 8 byte value is interpreted as two 32-bit signed integers and implicitly converted to floating point format. The lower and upper memory operands are marked as [src][0] and [src][1].

Memory operands for group E registers are loaded as described above, then their sign bit is cleared and their exponent value is set to 0x30F (corresponds to 2^-240).

All floating point operations are rounded according to the current value of the fprc register (see Table 4.3.1). Due to restrictions on the values of the floating point registers, no operation results in NaN or a denormal number.

Table 5.3.1 Floating point operations

frequency	instruction	dst	src	operation
8/256	FSWAP_R	F+E	-	(dst0, dst1) = (dst1, dst0)
20/256	FADD_R	F	A	(dst0, dst1) = (dst0 + src0, dst1 + src1)
5/256	FADD_M	F	mem	(dst0, dst1) = (dst0 + [src][0], dst1 + [src][1])
20/256	FSUB_R	F	A	(dst0, dst1) = (dst0 - src0, dst1 - src1)
5/256	FSUB_M	F	mem	(dst0, dst1) = (dst0 - [src][0], dst1 - [src][1])
6/256	FSCAL_R	F	-	(dst0, dst1) = (-2x0 * dst0, -2x1 * dst1)
20/256	FMUL_R	E	A	(dst0, dst1) = (dst0 * src0, dst1 * src1)
4/256	FDIV_M	E	mem	(dst0, dst1) = (dst0 / [src][0], dst1 / [src][1])
6/256	FSQRT_R	E	-	(dst0, dst1) = (√dst0, √dst1)

5.3.1 FSWAP_R

Swaps the lower and upper halves of the destination register. This is the only instruction that is applicable to both F an E register groups.

5.3.2 FADD

Double precision floating point addition. FADD_R uses a group A register source operand, FADD_M uses a memory source operand.

5.3.3 FSUB

Double precision floating point subtraction. FSUB_R uses a group A register source operand, FSUB_M uses a memory source operand.

5.3.4 FSCAL_R

This instruction negates the number and multiplies it by 2x. x is calculated by taking the 5 least significant digits of the biased exponent and interpreting them as a binary number using the digit set {+1, -1} as opposed to the traditional {0, 1}. The possible values of x are all odd numbers from -31 to +31.

The mathematical operation described above is equivalent to a bitwise XOR of the binary representation with the value of 0x81F0000000000000.

5.3.5 FMUL

Double precision floating point multiplication. This instruction uses only a register source operand.

5.3.6 FDIV

Double precision floating point division. This instruction uses only a memory source operand.

5.3.7 FSQRT_R

Double precision floating point square root of the destination register.

5.4 Other instructions

There are 4 special instructions that have more than one source operand or the destination operand is a memory value.

Table 5.4.1 - Other instructions

frequency	instruction	dst	src	operation
7/256	COND_R	R	R	if(condition(src, imm32)) dst = dst + 1
1/256	COND_M	R	mem	if(condition([src], imm32)) dst = dst + 1
1/256	CFROUND	fprc	R	fprc = src >>> imm32
16/256	ISTORE	mem	R	[dst] = src

5.4.1 COND

These instructions conditionally increment the destination register. The condition function depends on the mod.cond flag and takes the lower 32 bits of the source operand and the value imm32 (see Table 5.4.2). COND_R uses a register source operand, COND_M uses a memory source operand. Source and destination can be the same register.

Table 5.4.2 - Conditions

mod.cond	signed	condition	probability	x86	ARM
0	no	src <= imm32	0% - 100%	JBE	BLS
1	no	src > imm32	0% - 100%	JA	BHI
2	yes	src - imm32 < 0	50%	JS	BMI
3	yes	src - imm32 >= 0	50%	JNS	BPL
4	yes	src - imm32 overflows	0% - 50%	JO	BVS
5	yes	src - imm32 doesn't overflow	50% - 100%	JNO	BVC
6	yes	src < imm32	0% - 100%	JL	BLT
7	yes	src >= imm32	0% - 100%	JGE	BGE

The 'signed' column specifies if the operands are interpreted as signed or unsigned 32-bit numbers. Column 'probability' lists the expected probability the condition is true (range means that the actual value for a specific instruction depends on imm32).

5.4.2 CFROUND

This instruction sets the value of the fprc register to the 2 least significant bits of the source register rotated right by imm32. This changes the rounding mode of all subsequent floating point instructions.

5.4.3 ISTORE

This instruction stores the value of the source integer register to the memory at the address specified by the destination register. The src and dst register can be the same.

6. Dataset

The initial size of the dataset is RANDOMX_DATASET_SIZE bytes and it's divided into 64-byte blocks.

In order to allow PoW verification with a low amount of memory, the dataset is constructed from a smaller buffer called the "Cache", which can be used to calculate Dataset blocks on the fly.

Because the initialization of the Dataset is computationally intensive, it is recalculated only once per epoch. The following figure visualizes the construction of the dataset:

6.1 Seed block

The whole dataset is constructed from a 256-bit hash of the last block whose height is divisible by RANDOMX_EPOCH_BLOCKS and has at least RANDOMX_EPOCH_LAG confirmations (Table 6.1.1).

Table 6.1.1 - Seed block

block	Seed block
1-1088	Genesis block
1088-2112	1024
2113-3136	2048
...	...

6.2 Cache construction

The 32-byte seed block hash is expanded into the Cache using the "memory fill" function of Argon2d with parameters according to Table 6.2.1. The seed block is used as the "password" field.

Table 6.2.1 - Argon2 parameters

parameter	value
parallelism	RANDOMX_ARGON_LANES
output size	0
memory	RANDOMX_ARGON_MEMORY
iterations	RANDOMX_ARGON_ITERATIONS
version	0x13
hash type	0 (Argon2d)
password	seed block hash (32 bytes)
salt	RANDOMX_ARGON_SALT
secret size	0
assoc. data size	0

The finalizer and output calculation steps of Argon2 are omitted. The output is the filled memory array.

6.4 Dataset block generation

Dataset blocks are numbered sequentially with blockNumber starting from 0. Each 64-byte Dataset block is generated independently by XORing pseudorandom cache blocks selected by the SquareHash function.

The block data is arranged into 8 columns of 64-bit unsigned integers: c0-c7.

1. Set column c0 to blockNumber.
2. Set columns c1-c7 to zero.
3. Let i = 0
4. Let currentColumn be column with index i (wraps around if i > 7).
5. Let nextColumn be column with index i + 1 (wraps around if i > 6).
6. Load a 64-byte block from the Cache. The block index is given by currentColumn modulo the total number of blocks in Cache.
7. Set nextColumn = SquareHash(currentColumn + nextColumn)
8. XOR all columns with the 64 bytes loaded in step 6 (8 bytes per column in order c0-c7).
9. Set i = i + 1 and go back to step 4 if i < RANDOMX_CACHE_ACCESSES.
10. Concatenate columns c0-c7 in little endian format to get the final block data.

6.5 Dataset size

The initial size of the Dataset is RANDOMX_DATASET_SIZE bytes and grows by RANDOMX_DS_GROWTH bytes per epoch.